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Intercultural Management: Turkey

Turkish Cultural Standards

Cultural standards are hypothetical constructs. This means that they are not the result of orderly, broad-based empirical surveys, but are based on subjective experience. They are therefore the result of qualitative research. A country usually does not have one homogeneous culture, but consists of many subcultures. This is especially true of Turkey. The metropolis of Istanbul is also anything but culturally uniform; culture there depends strongly on the district in which one is staying. The standards discussed in this article refer to business life in Istanbul and in larger Turkish companies. Rural life and the culture of Anatolian villages are not discussed here. Private family life is also not the subject of this article. The focus is everyday professional life in Turkish companies.

Person and Relationship Orientation

In Germany and in many other Western countries, the perception and evaluation of a matter, a business deal, a cooperation, or a legal contract depends less on the people who represent it. Instead, the evaluation is usually based on factual and rational criteria.

This is different in Turkey: trading and business partners, colleagues, and actually all people with whom one has to handle something in everyday life are interesting as people. There is an attempt to build a harmonious relationship that must be maintained. If the personal relationship level deteriorates, or if it is not permitted in the first place, then business transactions are no longer possible, even if they could be promising and profitable.

Unlike in Germany, person and matter are not separated. In order to build a long-term business relationship with or inside a Turkish company, a friendly relationship must develop. Turks are very helpful toward one another and perceive it as impolite if they cannot find this helpfulness in the other person. In addition, in social encounters it is part of good manners to ask about the other person's well-being and family. Private and professional matters are separated in Turkey, as they are in Germany, although Turkish professionals of course also select what they reveal from their private lives and what they do not. The tendency is to talk more about positive aspects and to leave problems and less pleasant matters aside, as long as such topics are not obvious and unavoidable. If two people do not really like each other, they are still expected to make an effort. It is more important to express interest and appreciation than for this expression to be emotionally congruent.

Turks are not universalistic in the way Germans often are, but rather particularistic, according to Trompenaars. With regard to rules and regulations, maintaining relationships takes priority. Rules and regulations regulate the behavior of people toward one another when they do not know each other, or when they do not have an important relationship. Violations of rules and misconduct are tolerated when an important relationship is involved. However, even strangers are reluctant to behave toward one another strictly according to rules. Especially urgent or dramatic circumstances are presented to others with the request to make an exception to the rule. Justice is attached to the person and the situation, not to equality for everyone.

Striving for Harmony and Indirect Communication

Geert Hofstede (2001) explains collectivism as the preference for a closely connected part of society, within which individuals can expect their relatives and other members of this specific in-group to look after them in exchange for unquestioned loyalty. Individuals define themselves through this group membership. The opinion of the group is more important than one's own thoughts and feelings about a matter. Members of an in-group always make an effort to treat one another harmoniously and to maintain a state of harmony in communication. In less educated circles, the in-group is the first source of information. Turkish culture is collectivist.

In Turkish society, people communicate with a high context, according to Hall (1976). This means that the situation in which certain information is exchanged is important. How something is said is more important than the exact meaning of the words. People try to make communication harmonious, peaceful, and agreeable, and they address less pleasant matters indirectly. Politeness is never abandoned in a professional environment. Negations and rejection are never expressed with a clear “no,” which would seem very impolite. Without expressing it directly, rejection is hidden behind hints and gestures. Criticism is also not expressed directly because it would injure the other person's honor, especially if others are present. This is connected with loss of face. Criticism in front of other colleagues does not occur. Americans, Germans, and other more direct communicators must first learn to hear criticism from within the conversation and understand it correctly. Someone who does not hear direct criticism cannot assume that everything is going optimally. At the beginning of a conversation, the actual concern is not presented immediately. Instead, one first shows interest in the other person and appreciation by asking about well-being, asking about the family, and briefly exchanging news. In Turkey, it is impolite and expresses a lack of appreciation if one omits the context.

Stefan Enders (2014) recommends: “Be prepared for your Turkish partner to approach you with a high degree of friendly politeness and respect. (...) Before every round of negotiations, use the obligatory and extensive small talk to create a pleasant atmosphere in the exchange with your Turkish negotiating partners. (...) Contribute to a friendly and relaxed mood by reciprocating the Turkish communication style shaped by respect and politeness. (...) Turks are very humorous people and like telling jokes. You should therefore also have something humorous ready in order to contribute to a relaxed atmosphere at a suitable moment.”

Taboo Topics

Critical topics that may embarrass a Turkish conversation partner are above all political and religious in nature. These taboo topics include, first and foremost, the war with the terrorist organization PKK, the Kurdistan Workers’ Party, and the attempted coup of July 15, 2016. Conversations about the movement of Fethullah Gülen, which is also regarded as the terrorist organization FETÖ, Fethullahçı Terör Örgütü, should be avoided, as should discussions about the founder of the republic, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the military coup in the 1980s under Kenan Evren, or the governing style of Recep Tayyip Erdoğan. The protests against the redevelopment of Gezi Parkı in Istanbul Beyoğlu in 2013, the conflicts with Armenians in the Ottoman Empire between 1894 and 1918, the Greek islands in the Aegean Sea, the internationally unrecognized Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, and the handling of human rights in Turkey are also problematic topics. Guests in Turkey should always behave respectfully toward religion, especially Sunni Islam. Kemalist and other non-conservative Turks are also usually religious and proud of their religion. In this sense, almost all Turks take offense if someone makes fun of aspects of Islam or speaks about them disparagingly. While one can often easily see from women's clothing that they belong to the conservative, strictly religious part of the population, men can be very difficult to assess, and their attitude can easily be misjudged.

Hierarchy Orientation

Turkish people strongly accept unequal distribution of power and hierarchical differences, according to Hofstede (2001). There are many words in everyday life that express this. People who work in teaching professions are addressed as “Hocam,” meaning “my teacher,” even in their free time and in non-professional surroundings. Doctors are “Doktor Bey,” meaning “Mr. Doctor,” everywhere, even among neighbors. In skilled trades, the form of address “Ustam,” meaning “my master,” is used.

It is completely unusual to criticize superiors or other people who are higher in the hierarchy. Flat hierarchies and teamwork irritate Turkish employees and are unusual. While superiors enjoy absolute authority, subordinates do not assume that their superiors want to hear suggestions for solutions or improvements from them if they have not been asked. A superior is expected to say what should be done. If he asks his employees how something should be done, this is perceived as weakness or lack of competence.

At university, too, professors do not expect criticism or questioning from Turkish students. What is regarded in Germany as enriching the lesson and as valuable discussion is considered impolite in Turkey. At Turkish universities, professors and lecturers have their own restaurant reserved only for them, while students and ordinary employees go to the normal cafeteria.

Turkish superiors are not only authoritarian; they are also paternalistic. This means that they also have a fatherly component in their behavior. They feel responsible for the well-being of their employees, including areas that go beyond the professional environment. They try to help and support.

Traditionally, men are placed higher in the hierarchy than women, although this does not necessarily have to be the case in large international companies. The higher the level of education and the more internationally oriented the company is, the more professional equality between men and women is accepted.

The situation is different with respect for older people. Everywhere in Turkey, people behave respectfully toward the elderly. Children already learn to address their older brother as “Abi” and their older sister as “Abla.” These words continue to be used in everyday life among adults. A younger man addresses an older man as “Abi” and an older woman as “Abla.” In public transportation, one always offers elderly people a seat. In hospitals, elderly people are allowed to go first, even if one has waited and would finally be next. In traditional families, the elderly have the largest share of speaking time, and people listen to them.

Hierarchical differences are also expressed in large salary differences. Many people love to express their social position through status symbols, with the car coming first. The current brand-name smartphone is also given great importance. Turks also love high-quality, expensive clothing and upscale restaurants. In Istanbul, some families spend the monthly wage of a Turkish worker during a restaurant visit.

Great Importance Attached to Outer Appearance

As in most Mediterranean countries, Turks pay more attention to the outer appearance of others and of themselves than Germans do. Loose, comfortable, and casual clothing is not popular at all. Therefore, Turks devote a great deal of their time and money to appearance. Clothing in Turkey should absolutely be appropriate to the occasion, elegant, and well-groomed. When something is celebrated or solemnly marked, people in Turkey dress even more elegantly than in normal everyday professional life. In many Turkish companies, employees wear a suit and tie every day, or at least a dress shirt. Jeans and sweaters are not worn. Even in their free time, most Turks do not wear shorts and T-shirts.

High Uncertainty Avoidance

Uncertainty avoidance expresses the degree to which members of a society feel uncomfortable with uncertainty and ambiguity. The fundamental question is how a society deals with the fact that the future always remains unknown. Should the future be controlled, or should one simply let it happen? Hofstede (2001). Anyone who knows Turkey knows that the result of the GLOBE study by Robert House and others (2004), which attributes low uncertainty avoidance to Turkey, cannot be correct. It is as Geert Hofstede originally measured it: Turks show strong uncertainty avoidance. This means that they maintain rigid beliefs and rules of behavior and do not tolerate unconventional behavior or alternative ideas, according to Hofstede (2011). Even in the large metropolis of Istanbul, restaurants serving foreign food do not last long; Turks remain attached to their food and their traditions. Alternative movements have little chance and remain small on the margins of society. Situations in everyday life are precisely structured. There are fixed procedures and elements for all kinds of situations. For example, a visit to a relative or good friend is precisely structured. It is established when which food is served, when the tea comes, who has which task, and of course the guest must bring a gift. On the day before the visit, the apartment is thoroughly tidied. Turks also know exactly how to dress in which situation; the room for variation is very narrow. There are fixed rituals and customs for all kinds of situations. Traditionally, it is also precisely established how a man is supposed to court a woman. The whole family is involved, and everyone knows how to interpret the subtle, not immediately obvious facial expressions and gestures, so that no uncertainties can arise. The steep hierarchies and communication rules presented above also contribute to uncertainty avoidance.

Unequal Roles of Women and Men

Alexander Reeb and his co-authors (2011) explain: “In Turkey, honor and reputation are extremely important. Behind the concept of honor, namus, lies above all the regulation of gender relations. Women are socially controlled by family members, but also by neighbors and acquaintances. The spatial and social separation of women and men must be maintained. Otherwise, the woman and her entire family lose their honor. Reputation, şeref, refers to the external area of society. The term includes the male obligation to protect the honor of the women in the family and to show strength, also in professional life. Şeref must be earned. Through generosity, hospitality, and correct exercise of power, şeref is strengthened.”

These traditional concepts are expressed to different degrees today depending on the educational level and place of residence of the families, but in any case they shape the self-perception of men and women. Men are simply allowed to get away with more and are used to setting the tone. Women bear more responsibility for their behavior and are therefore more reserved and controlled. For this reason, they are often disadvantaged and prevented from fully developing in accordance with their talents and abilities. Working women are often expected to take care of the household and the upbringing of the children by themselves despite working, without further help, so that a career costs them much more energy than it costs a man.

Flexible Time Orientation

Thinking in precise time structures and adhering to them exactly is something that Germans master particularly well by international comparison. Among Germans, time structures also play a role in automatic thinking, which is why the implementation of time plans is usually very successful among Germans without being perceived by them as very laborious. For this reason, Turks naturally perform worse in comparison. But in Turkish companies and in educated circles, punctuality and adherence to time agreements succeed to an acceptable degree. Unlike in Germany, it is not perceived as impolite in Turkey if someone is late. Overall, in Turkey, and especially in Istanbul because of the traffic situation, there is much more understanding and tolerance for delays. But when it is absolutely necessary, Turks can also be punctual to the minute. Stefan Enders (2014) recommends: “Even if you have written confirmation of your appointment, call shortly beforehand to remind your appointment partner by telephone.”

Small Personal Distance

In Turkey, personal distance among people of the same gender is smaller than in Germany. This is especially noticeable in public transportation and overcrowded waiting rooms. Conversely, however, physical contact between men and women is taboo there and everywhere in public. Most Turks therefore avoid sitting in such a way on public transportation that physical contact between men and women could arise. By contrast, touching among people of the same gender is frequent and represents a sign of sympathy. “Men also often touch each other. Business partners, for example, touch each other on the arm or greet each other with the traditional cheek touch.” Reeb et al. (2011)

Literature:

Reeb, A., Reeb, J., Bollmann, U., & Shatup, A. (2011). Türkei – Länderspezifische Infos. Berlin: Deutsche Gesetzliche Unfallversicherung e.V. (DGUV). [download]

Hall, E. T. (1989). Beyond Culture. New York: Anchor Books.

Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture’s Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions, and Organizations Across Nations (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

House, R. J., Hanges, P. J., Javidan, M., Dorfman, P. W., & Gupta, V. (2004). Culture, Leadership, and Organizations: The GLOBE Study of 62 Societies. Los Angeles: SAGE Publications.

Enders, S., & Arslan, B. (2014). IHK Pocket Guide Türkei: Interkulturelle Kompetenz für die “Westentasche”. Neuss: Industrie- und Handelskammer (IHK) Niederrhein Geschäftsbereich International. [download]

How can students cite this article? Volker Andreas Müller. Intercultural Management: Turkish Cultural Standards. Istanbul: 2017. Retrieved from: https://media-vm.de/turkish-cultural-standards.html (date of access)